Government requires that its people fear it. The state must project power. These two statements are as true today as they have been since small groups of people began attempting to control the rest of humanity. These men and women use violence, lies, and all manner of coercion. We are constantly told that the government of the United States is the sole “super power.” Vietnam struck at the very core of this illusion when the United States government failed to obtain victory in that poor backwoods area of the world. Sure, they had excuses, but they lost. What if I were to tell you that you are unaware of a loss to an even less “powerful” nation? Just after the Civil War, we lost a war that raged right here. The war lasted from 1866-1868 and was named after one of the leaders of the victorious stateless Indian tribes who, at the time, controlled 1/5 of what is now the United States. This Freedom Fighter was Red Cloud and his Sioux and other tribes soundly defeated the U.S. Government. This great warrior is the only American Indian in history to force the Army to sue for peace on his terms.
The largest gathering of American Indians ever, were brought together in September of 1851 at Fort Laramie, which is located in present-day southeastern Wyoming. The tribes included were Arapaho, Cheyenne, Blackfeet, Crow, and many other tribes. Also among those in attendance was the feared Sioux. The only major tribe not in attendance was the Pawnee, who refused to participate because they feared the Sioux.
Among the Lakota Sioux in attendance were many names that history remembers. Sitting Bull, who at this time was virtually unknown, was already warning his people about their dependence on the white man. Also among these Sioux was an 11 year old son of a medicine man, who one day would be known as Crazy Horse. One of the most impressive figures among these gathered warriors was the 6 foot tall 30 year old Red Cloud perched atop his painted mustang.
Red Cloud had been born nearby and he knew all too well the practices of the white man and their government. At this point in his life, Red Cloud had served his band, called the Bad Faces, for almost a decade as a blotahunka, or head warrior. As he stared out at those gathered, he knew that the white men who had invited him and the others, had no notion of his stature. Every Indian present on the other hand knew very well of the power, not only of Red Cloud, but the Sioux.
The American Government had no idea how to deal with these people. At this gathering, the tribes would be bribed with all sorts of trinkets, blankets, and food. They would be asked to “sign” peace treaties that they could not read, did not understand, and knew that the white man would never honor. The government would call for their leaders to come forward. These people did not have a centralized leadership. They sometimes randomly chose someone to march forward and touch the top of the pen, so that in turn, their name would be written by an Army official. It was all a farce.
Yet, this was a farce that the brilliant tactician, Red Cloud, would use. He studied the Army’s numbers. He watched their maneuvers. Most importantly, he carefully monitored their weapons. Those within the safety of the fort thought that they were showing off their power by displaying their newest and best rifles, cannons, and other weapons to savages. What they were actually doing is familiarizing Red Cloud with their strengths and weaknesses.
White men had numbers. They also had better weapons. What they did not have was generations on generations of warriors raised to die fighting. The Plains Indians did not take prisoners. Worse than that, if you were unlucky enough to survive the battle on the losing side you would be tortured and dismembered. This applied whether you were a combatant or not. It also was your fate whether you were a man, woman, or child. The white men were not ready for this kind of butcher as an enemy.
When the Indians had signed treaties and been bribed, the American leaders thought that they had been successful when an Arapaho head man, more or less speaking for all of the tribes, said, “I would be glad if the whites would pick out a place for themselves and not come into our grounds. But if they must pass through our country, they should give us game for what they drive off.” With that the “Horse Creek Treaty,” was, “signed.” The white man would say that it would lead to “lasting peace.” The agreement would be the “most sweeping treaty the Sioux had ever signed.” It, of course, would quickly be broken. Red Cloud said publicly that he never intended on abiding by the treaty. What the idiots in charge got when they randomly chose “Chiefs” was an unenforceable agreement. The Lakota, who were the most feared tribe on the plains, were looking for new “head men,” and Red Cloud was on everyone’s short list of leading warriors.
In their book, “The Heart of Everything,” Bob Drury and Tom Clavin had this to say about the outcome of this treaty:
“No one, certainly not Red Cloud, could have imagined him (Red Cloud) a bottled spider confined to a specific territory, no matter how large or how bountiful. The idea of Red Cloud prohibited from leading raids, from stealing horses, from taking scalps- the very exploits for which he was already renowned- was opposed to his nature.” To expect Red Cloud to follow a treaty made with what he perceived as weaker men that went against Sioux culture for time immemorial was at best, stupid and at worst, would lead to war. In this case, the worst case certainly happened to the government. They had met their match in this freedom fighter who would not permit his people to be eradicated by fools.
The Government and its Army had no idea what they were facing in the Sioux. These Indians did not weave baskets; they did not make pottery, or make jewelry. This tribe and their neighboring tribes, such as the Cheyenne, did not like farming and did little of it. What the Sioux did well was fight and kill. Their culture was similar in some ways to the Greek Spartans but was much more brutal.
The United States was actively trying to license and regulate, which are two words that the Sioux did not even begin to understand. This white man’s tribe had a reputation, as well, of not in any way acting in the best interest of other white men, much less the red man. They knew of the forced migration of Indians to Oklahoma. The Sioux saw the white men and their country as a poison setting in on their land. Red Cloud himself had seen this poison first hand. His father died of alcoholism. This caused the Sioux leader to abhor “the water that makes men crazy.”
Add to this their decentralized leadership culture. No head man of the Sioux could order any other man. Sure, they had respected leaders, but the tribe followed them because of their actions, not because of their title or tradition. Again, the US Government was at a loss to understand that to work with these people, they had to earn their respect. How could they do that when the Army constantly broke treaties and lied?
All of that being said, had the government attacked before the Civil War, the Sioux might have been defeated more easily. The military, even before the Colt revolver and other weapon innovations, would have severely outgunned them. Also, the plains tribes did not yet understand military tactics and would do little more than attack and retreat. The idea of holding ground made no sense to them. All of this changed years later when Red Cloud rose to power.
As usual, with treaty after treaty, the “The Great Father,” which is what they called the president, made promises that they and their hunting grounds would be left alone. From 1849 to 1851, just to give a snapshot, more than 20,000 wagons and over 140,000 head of livestock crossed Sioux land. They were pissed. The response of the white trespassers to this anger is captured by this quote from a white immigrant, “The Savages are foes on every hand, subtle as the devil himself.” These men were breaking the treaty at this scale, and yet, had the nerve to blame the Indians!
By 1850, when Red Cloud was only 29, the ignorance of tribal culture was already beginning to handicap the Army. They did not even begin to understand that Red Cloud was rising in the tribe. They thought him too young. At this time, among the Sioux and other plains tribes, he was undoubtedly the “most feared warrior on the High Plains.” Officially among his own band, the Bad Faces, he was of a lesser rank than Old Smoke, but in troubled times, warriors had prominence over what white men would call “chiefs.” Already, Red Cloud had become the spiritual and martial leader of his people.
Together Old Smoke and Red Cloud kept their band safe in the north from the diseases brought by the Americans such as cholera, measles, and small pox. Other tribes and even other bands of Sioux had been decimated by these epidemics. This, as well, added to the popularity of Red Cloud.
At this time, the United States in all of its ego, decided to name a “Chief” among the Sioux. Red Cloud was still unknown to them and he had decided to keep his people away from the Forts of the white men. They picked a man named Conquering Bear. The eastern Lakota ignored the appointment. The Oglalas, including Red Clouds Bad Faces, were astounded and angry at the thought of white men choosing their leaders. Not only was this an obvious insult to them, it also was an erosion of their autonomy. Red Cloud saw it as an offense to Old Smoke, but wanted to keep peace, so he ignored the proclamation. Writing about this divide, a Lakota born historian named Joseph M. Marshall III wrote, “The whites had one truth, and the Lakota another.”
Although Red Cloud decided not to act on the insult, it was a deciding moment for him. The question of whether or not there would be conflict with the United States had been answered. The only question now, was when. Red Cloud knew he needed to stall for time. He had seen the weapons that the Army had and also knew that if the Sioux were going to win a war, they were going to need a lot more guns.
The “reign” of Conquering Bear would not last long. In 1854, an angry Sioux killed a cow that belonged to the local fort. The commanding officer demanded the offending warrior be turned over. Conquering Bear knew that was never going to happen. No Sioux would turn himself in to sit in a Blue Coat jail. Conquering Bear, as expected, did not return with the warrior.
Angry, an officer called for soldiers to go get the Indian. The officer’s view was “the white race would always trump the red, no matter the numerical odds.” It was his “Christian God’s intended order of things.” The commanding officer allowed him to raise a response. The officer took a twelve-pound field piece, a snub-nosed mountain Howitzer (a cannon), and he asked for volunteers. All forty infantrymen rose to help. He put 29 of them on horses and got the drunken interpreter onto a saddle. They then set out to find the offender.
Again, Conquering Bear tried to talk sense into them just outside of the gates to the fort. As the “Chief” turned to go back to his people, the officer ordered his men to line up. He then ordered them to fire, killing Conquering Bear.
In front of the fort, the “friendly” Sioux were camped. Everyone in the camp saw what had just occurred. The camp consisted of around 5,000 Sioux. Somewhere around 1,200 of them were warriors. The response only took minutes. “Rifle balls and clouds of arrows a thick as black flies sailed into the American line.” The interpreter, who was an avowed Indian hater, briefly escaped into a “death lodge,” whose owner had just been buried. The furious Lakota found him and drug him out. “He writhed in the dirt and wailed for mercy as they sliced out his forked tongue and replaced it with his severed penis.” When he died after his eyes were gouged out, the warriors waved their penises at him in the traditional Sioux insult. None of the other soldiers fared any better.
By the time the story made it to the white newspapers, it was Conquering Bear who had lured the poor soldiers into a trap. Messengers were dispatched with news that the Western Sioux had risen. Anyone who argued the truth was called an “Indian Lover.” The Lakota, including Red Cloud, on the other hand, felt that justice had been done and were not that interested in further conflict.
The following summer, Red Cloud was granted the highest honor of a Sioux warrior. He took part in what was called a “Pipe Dance.” Almost all Oglala bands attended. Although Old Smoke was still alive, in his seventies, this was a clear signal to every Sioux who was the most respected of their people. According to Drury and Claven, “The four pillars of Sioux leadership- acknowledged by the tribe to this day- are bravery, fortitude, generosity, and wisdom. Time and again, Red Cloud exhibited each.”
While Red Cloud was rising to the pinnacle of Sioux respect, the United States was talking about sending troops to put down the non-existent Sioux uprising over one cow. They were ordered that all Sioux they found should be considered hostile and killed. In late August of 1855 several Sioux, including Crazy Horse, crossed paths with the Army. The Sioux tried to parlay. The troops advanced and the outnumbered Indians fled. In all, eighty-six men, women, and children were killed. The soldiers, who wanted “revenge” over the “massacre” the year before, scalped and mutilated the bodies of the Indians. The “civilized” United States soldiers hacked out the vaginas of the women as trophies. On top of those killed, they took seventy women and children prisoner. After the battle, the Sioux called the commander of the soldiers, “Woman Killer.”
In 1856, the Sioux had finally had enough. For four decades they had been lied to, hunted, and put up with trespassers. They had seen the white man name their own leader of the natives and then, they saw the Army shoot him in the back. Worst of all, they had seen their sacred Buffalo, which they considered the soul of their people, dwindle as the white traders skinned them and left the rest to rot. It was time for the Sioux to stop fighting other Indians and fight the Whites.
Red Cloud, in the shadow of the Black Hills, started uniting, first the Sioux and then other tribes of the plains. He noticed an up and coming warrior who had shown himself to be a good leader. Crazy Horse had a future in the growing Sioux warrior society. For the first time in history, all of the Lakota were being summoned to a great council where they would formulate a united resistance against the threat of the United States government.
The estimated attendance of Indians at the council in 1857 was over 10,000. Red Cloud asked one simple question as they debated whether they were going to go to war, “When had they ever known the whites to be satisfied with the lands that they already possessed?” The united strategic objective that emerged was that their people must be protected, by force if necessary. Red Cloud dispatched Crazy Horse to visit other tribes. Red Cloud stopped raiding and began looking for better methods to destroy his enemy. One thing that he was certain of was that if a large scale engagement against the Blue Coats were to occur, his people would lose. He needed to weaken their opponent. When they attacked, it had to be strategic, not simply random attacks.
The best help for Red Cloud’s plans to unite his people happened in 1861, the Civil War. While the North and South were fighting each other, they would not be able to attack Sioux. They went back to fighting weather and bickering, but they largely did not kill.
In addition to most troops being pulled from the west, the government in its wisdom reminded the Lakota who their enemy was now and then. As part of their treaties, the government had promised the Dakotas, Sioux cousins of the Lakota in Minnesota, provisions such as food in the harsh winters. They, of course, failed to deliver, causing widespread starvation. The opinion given by the whites was “If they are hungry, let them eat grass.” This need for food caused the Dakotas to attack the poorly manned forts. They were put down.
The Dakotas claimed that they were offered leniency if they surrendered. Over 1,200 warriors turned themselves in. Most were handed long prison sentences. More than 300 were ordered to be hanged. Red Cloud used this to bring his cousins into the fold.
Red Cloud was not alone. Aside from Crazy Horse, who had become his primary warrior; Sitting Bull in 1865 had soaked the plains red with the blood of white men as well. War was on the horizon. The Plains Indians had used the Civil War to gather their allies and prepare for the certain return of soldiers who now had seen war. In this time, Red Cloud also grew as a tactician. The newly arriving officers described the Indian presence as ghosts. They never saw them but knew that they were everywhere.
The white men may not have known where the Indians were, but the Sioux certainly knew where the whites were. With the influx of quicker guns, they were busy wiping out the sacred heart of the Plains Indians, the Buffalo. In one day, a hunter could kill over 100 buffalo. In four decades the population of the animal reduced from somewhere around 30 million to less than 1,000. Sitting Bull said, years later, “A cold wind blew across the prairie when the last buffalo fell. A death wind for my people.” The most offensive part for the Lakota was the fact that the white men only took the tongue and hide. The rest was left to rot on the ground. This was blasphemy. It was like spitting on Mother Earth and the Great Hoop of existence!
If the United States Army had been more aware of the situation, they would have attacked one tribe after another, but instead they attacked them all. Most commanders did not know the difference between a hostile and friendly Indian, much less a Cheyenne, Arapaho, or the various kinds of Sioux. This drove these tribes and bands into Red Cloud’s building Army.
Red Cloud had tried to put off the eventual clash, but by spring of 1865, he knew that the conflict was on his doorstep. It was time to fight the United States. He convened a war council of many tribes, most were Cheyenne and Sioux. They were uniting under one common cause, their survival. The speech that Red Cloud delivered was simple.
“The Great Spirit raised both the white man and the Indian. I think he raised the Indian first. He raised me in this land and it belongs to me. The white man was raised over the great waters, and his land is over there. Since they crossed the sea, I have given room. There are now white people all about me. I have but one small spot of land left. The Great Spirit told me to keep it.”
Red Cloud’s promise was simple. “If white men come into my country again, I will punish them again.” It was his plan to close down the pathway into his people’s land, forever.
With the influx west of seasoned soldiers, there were advantages and disadvantages. Sure, these soldiers knew war, but they also were sick of it. Many soldiers either just did not show up to fight the Indians, or were spurred on by other reasons, like the newly found gold on the plains.
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